Occupational Therapy Communication

Occupational Therapy Communication Abstract Occupational Therapy is a new and developing profession in the medical felid. Along with all other professions Occupational Therapy is unique to itself. It includes a specific way it is conducted and how the professionals act within the profession. Occupational Therapists need to have an understanding of the discourse, communication, resources and the style manual within the profession. Occupational Therapists also need to know and understand the history that pertains to the Occupational Therapy profession. Communication skills within the field are important for communication between others within the medical field and patients to the Occupational Therapist. Research Project DISCOURSE Academic discourse for every professional field is different. All professional fields use the same way of finding information for there discourse. This information is used towards new ideas and new research. The use of communication is an important part of discourse. Through the use of informal and formal communication professions find new ideas for research. Informal communication is done through emails, phone conversations and letters. Many professionals will use email as a way to communicate their writings that need editing or other ideas. Formal communication is done through academic journals and books. Professionals use formal communication for the use of discovering new ideas and new information for research. Professionals in the same field use the same discourse. Use of the same discourse consists of using the same communication language. Professionals also have the same understanding of there writings. Professionals with in the same field of work are considered professional communities. These communities count on each other for new information. 1 The profession of Occupational Therapy assists people in every day activities. Occupational Therapists help out the disabled and chronic ill patients. As an Occupational Therapist the core focus on helping someone is on their everyday activities that may be performed. As stated by Gelya Frank in the article Occupational Therapy Occupational Science Interdisciplinary Interest Group: A Proposal to the National Association for Practice of Anthropology, â€Å"Occupational therapy, therefore, is a profession whose focus is on enabling a person (i.e. individual client) or group of persons (i.e. group, community or an organization client) to access and participate in activities that are meaningful, purposeful and relevant to their lives, roles and sense of well being.†. (p 2) Occupational therapists are there for people who need assistance in being taught a task that might be difficult for them to do because of a disability. Writing documented records in Occupational Therapy follows the demands of ethics and laws in formal writing. The documentation of a treatment or consultation of the patient needs to be professional and well organized. Patient’s records are a private matter between the therapist and the patient. Records should be easily read. (p 3) There should be no use of negative words against the patient or the patient’s disability. Documentation in Occupational Therapy is thought to be one of the most difficult aspects of the profession. Documentation occurs after visiting with a patient, it must be clear and precise. Patients have the right to read their records from the Occupational Therapist. These records should be easily understood by patients. 3 (p 6) These documentations use keywords to point out important information from the Occupational Therapist. Included with the documentation of the visits with the patient should include a written painted picture of the patient that is easily understood by others. Professional Occupational Therapist and the patient should be able to understand the visit through the painted picture. Also included in documentation of patients are goals set by the patient and Occupational Therapist, and the plan for treatment decided by the Occupational Therapist. After every treatment there should be an evaluation of how the Occupational Therapist feels the patient is doing in the treatment plan.3 (p 5) Not only should the documentation include the painted picture, but the documentation needs to have meaning. In Pierre’s article, â€Å"Occupational Therapy as Documented in Patient’s Records,† one occupational therapist stated â€Å"There must be descriptions in running text in order to maintain a unique picture of a patient. Documentation must not be just a lot of words, but have content.† 3 (p 5) The information included in documentations should be considered extremely important and an Occupational Therapist needs to spend time considering the information needed for the documentation and the context of the writing. HISTORY Moral treatment was used as a treatment for the mentally ill. Moral treatment started in the 18th and 19th century in Europe and North America. Treatment of mentally ill patients in the early 1990’s included doing everyday tasks that included house work and other activities that were thought to help someone return to normal health. These everyday tasks were called occupations. An occupation is where occupational therapy received its name. Occupational Therapy is a therapy where patients do occupations to recover. These tasks included cleaning house, different craft projects and physical activities. (p31-31) William Tuke named and founded the ideas of Moral treatment. His ideas include treating mentally ill patients as if the patient is really mentally well. Through Williams’s ideas of moral treatment he started the making of asylums for the mentally ill. These asylums were used for housing and caring of the mentally ill. (p427) Figure one is a table of the principles of moral treatment. These moral treatment principles are the ideas from the article â€Å"The relevance of moral treatment to contemporary mental health care† according to Annie Borthwick et. Al. William was the founder of these principles for moral treatment.5 (p431) 5(p431) Through the ideas of moral treatment began the formation of Occupational Therapy. Many doctors had helped contribute to the creating and establishing of Occupational Therapy schools, hospitals, books and the fundamental ideas.4(p.30) In the early 20th century young doctors and nurses generated the idea of Occupational Therapy through using moral treatment as the foundation. There principal ideas included doing everyday tasks to help with the recovery of the mentally ill. This principal was similar to the principals of moral treatment. 4(p27) In 1917 a group of young doctors come together to plan a therapy process for people with metal illness. These young doctors formed the National Association for Occupational Therapy. 4(p27) William Rush Dunton, Jr. graduated from the University of Pennsylvania with a degree in medicine. He began his work with Occupational Therapy through the principles of moral treatment for the mentally ill. Dunton worked at the Sheppard Asylum. He used William Tukes ideas for moral treatment at the Sheppard Asylum. The Sheppard Asylum promoted William Dunton to be the director of Occupational Therapy for the mentally ill. Through his experiences William Dunton was a founder and leader of the National Association of Occupational Therapy. 4(p34) Adolf Meyer received his Masters in the area of neurology from a school in Switzerland where he was a native. He immigrated to Chicago after receiving his masters. Meyer believed in the connections someone’s mind and body had. He also believed that it required thinking to do actions. He did not agree with Freud’s ideas of the mind and body. He also believed everyone’s life story affected and contributed to the person’s attitudes and behavior. He believed that a mental illness was developed from flawed habits that were learned by the person. His care included changing the flawed habit that a mentally ill patient had. Through his treatments to his patients he made the work meaningful to them. His care included making sure the patient had good care, received enough rest, and socializing among others. 4(p33) Eleanor Clark Slagle attended Hull House which was part of the Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy. She was enrolled in a course of amusements and occupations. This course work was founded by Meyer Meyer. Clark started programs like Meyers in Michigan and New York through out different mental health hospitals. During World War One Clark was asked by the Chicago Red Cross to help with the training of other Red Cross nurses on Occupational Therapy. The training included therapy for soldiers who would return from war from battle fatigue and injury. She developed programs for mentally ill people through Meyer ideas. These programs included walks, activates, exercise and small group meals. 4(p36) Clark and Meyer both provide their services on Occupational Therapy training. There services were provided at the John Hopkins University in the Henry Phipps Psychiatric Clinic. 4(p36) Herbert James Hall graduated in 1895 from Harvard Medical School as a general practitioner. Hall thought that working with crafts would help mental ill patients. He believed that through crafts patients could not fail. This gave patients the feeling of becoming successful and not failing. Crafts also diverted the minds of patients from their mental illness. Hall was also the founding father of The Boston School of Occupational Therapy in 1918. Herbert also was an author of some of the first books in Occupational Therapy. 4(p28) Susan Elizabeth Tracy was a nursing student who attending and graduated from Massachusetts Horneopathic Hospital. While working at a hospital Tracy found that patients who participated in hospital activities improved faster than those who did not participate in hospital activities. Tracy used occupational treatment when she began practicing her own private nursing. Tracy started her own experimental study of occupations in a Jamaica Plain Hospital. Her courses are considered the first organized classes in Occupational Therapy education. Tracy believed that therapy needed to engage the patients in activities that captured there attention. These therapy activities also needed to hold some kind of meaning to the patients. 4(p38) In early Occupational Therapy it was believed the patients needed to have the motivation to recover. Early Occupational Therapy was based on therapy through occupations. Occupations included crafts, activities, games, and any physical activities. Early occupational therapy found it important that the occupation would pertain to the patient’s life. Occupational Therapy in the beginning also included the focus of how the occupation pertained to the patient’s life and health. Also the focus was on how the occupation could be used as a therapy. Motivation had a strong importance on emphasizing the occupations. Many doctors felt encouragement through therapy was also needed by the doctor and family members. 4(p43) During the 1940’s through the 1950’s there was a strong urge that Occupational Therapy take medicine in to consideration. During this time many Occupational Therapists were forced to go in coalition with medicine. Occupational Therapy field moved to the use of medical terms when caring for a patient. Occupational Therapist had to use concepts that were taken from the practice of medicine.4(p55) Starting in the early 1960’s Occupational Therapy changed because of new technology and more information of the human body. Occupational Therapists were able to detect psychological problems of patients because of the new theories of the human body. During this time body functions and impairments were clarified. In the 1960’s scientific terms were used in the occupational therapy work place. There was also a better understand the emotional issues with patients who were mentally ill. 4(p54-55) After the 1960’s Occupational Therapist realized that through the medical intervention many of the original ideas of Occupational Therapy were lost. Many doctors of Occupational Therapy found that there was no connection between the activities used in therapy compared to the names given to them from the medical terminology. Occupational Therapy almost lost its identity by trying to identity if self with medicine. Because of misidentification Occupational Therapists have gone back to the use of occupations as treatments as it was at the development of Occupational Therapy.4(p54-55) RESOURCES There are many resources offered to Occupational Therapist. Resources include websites, academic journals, videos, newsletters, and memberships to many Occupational Therapy organizations. Websites include the Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association, the American Occupational Therapy Foundation, and National Board for Certification in Occupational Therapy. Academic journals include American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Journal of American Medical Association and other medical journals. The Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association website gives members many opportunities and special options. A member of the Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association grants any Minnesotan Occupational Therapist access to many databases, libraries, videos, newsletters, and publications. These other databases include American Medical Association, National Association of Home Care, Sensory Integration International, National Rehabilitation Information Center, and American Academy of Pediatrics. Government Agencies are also offered through being a member of the Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association Website. 6 These government agencies include Medicare, Medline, and Occupational Outlook Handbook. Publications are another Resource that Occupational Therapist can use for new information. 6 Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association website offers three publication links. These links include ADVANCE for Occupational Therapy Practitioners, Merck Manual of DX and The Neuroscience Center. Other Occupational Therapy sites provided by the Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association include Occupational Therapy Internet World, Skills for the Job Living, and Occupational Therapist.com. 6 Becoming a member of the Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association includes other advantages. Members receive the Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association newsletter quarterly. Students who are part of Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association attending to school to become an Occupational Therapist have the option of becoming a member. Student members have the opportunity to apply for scholarships. Members receive discounted prices in any conferences that are held for Occupational Therapist in Minnesota. Through the use of the membership members have the opportunity to communicate with each other for new information and new research options. Members of the association have voting rights to decide how the association will be organized and operated. A member also includes being recognized for contributions for Occupational Therapy within Minnesota. These are the main benefits for joining the Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association. 6 Another option on the Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association web site includes employment opportunities. The site offers many job listings for the use of Occupational Therapist who are members of the Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association. Other Occupational Therapists and businesses have the option to post job listings on the web site. 6 The American Occupational Therapy Foundation is another resource for Occupational Therapist. This resource supplies Occupational Therapist with opportunities for research funding. Through the use of this web site it was hoped to build a better understanding of Occupational Therapy science. There is also a scholarship provided for any Occupational Therapy student. The American Occupational Therapy Foundation provides awards for research in Occupational Therapy. The site provides recognition to Occupational Therapists that have shown renowned contributions for Occupational Therapy science. American Occupational Therapy Association helped to build the foundation needed to build the American Occupational Therapy Foundation. 7 National Board for Certification in Occupational Therapy, Inc. is a resource for graduated Occupational Therapist. Occupational Therapist must complete all required Field work along with the educational program to join the National Board for Certification in Occupational Therapy. The National Board for Certification in Occupational Therapy requires that Occupational Therapist pass there examination to be certified. This exam tests the skills, understanding and abilities of all Occupational Therapist. National Board for Certification in Occupational Therapy is a non-profit organization that administers the certifying of Occupational Therapist. Along with the Minnesota Occupational Therapy Association the American Occupational Therapy Foundation is a not-profit organization. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy is one of the many academic journals that Occupational Therapist can use. Included in this journal are researched peer-read articles from professional Occupational Therapist. These articles include information that is theory-based and theoretical research. Occupational Therapist can use this information towards new ideas; other research projects and there own patients. The American Medical Association Journal offers information on general medical reviewed articles. There main objective is to promote the art of medicine and to help make public health better for all. These journals provide Occupational Therapist with the newest research available to them in medicine. Other journals Occupational Therapists may refer to are journals based on pediatrics, autism, ADHD, learning disorders, psychology, and neurology. Depending on where an Occupational Therapist may work will determine which journals will be read. An Occupational Therapist working with children will read journals on pediatrics along with other medical and Occupational Therapy Journals. These are the many resources offered to Occupational Therapists. These recourses include academic journals, web sites, and organizations. Occupational Therapists have the option to join many organizations to better the understanding of Occupational Therapy science to others and to gain benefits for themselves. Through the use of these recourses Occupational Therapists communicate there new ideas and the new research information. COMMUNICATION To become a well developed and successful Occupational Therapist many qualities are needed. These qualities include great interpersonal, writing, grammar, public speaking, and computer skills. Some of these skills can be learned from other experienced Occupational Therapist and others are learned with work experience. During an email interview with Nancy Klassen, member of Canadian Association of Occupational Therapists and an Occupational Therapist Registered(OTR) (written communication, March 2008), gave me a handful of information pertaining to the communication skills of Occupational Therapist. Through her experiences as an Occupational Therapist she has found that as an Occupational Therapist many qualities are needed. Through this paper many of her ideas will be shared with the readers. Interpersonal skills are required for Occupational Therapist to communicate with others who are involved with the patients care and treatment plans. Communicating with others includes children’s parents, specialists, educators, and childcare providers. An Occupational Therapist may need to have an informational meeting with parents and others involved in the client’s life to educate and instruct on the best treatment plan care for the client. An Occupational Therapist must be able to communicate in a tactful, clear way to make others understand the information given to them on the treatment of the patient (Klassen, written communication). Occupational Therapist will have opportunities to share research information with other co-workers. Communicating with other Occupational Therapist includes sharing new research information, medical information on clients, and discussions on client progression. As an Occupational Therapists who work in a team might have to give presentation on clients at team meetings (Klassen, written communication). Occupational Therapist may need to prepare and give seminars or presentations. During these seminars Occupational Therapist may have the option of presenting new research information, new program ideas and other ideas that may pertain to assisting other Occupational Therapist (Klassen, written communication). As an Occupational Therapist writing is a skill that will be used to write reports. Reports will be presented to other Occupational Therapist, social workers, schools, children’s hospitals, physicians, and the client’s parents. Other written material includes progress notes, and letter writing. During a clients treatment time with an Occupational Therapist progress notes or progress charts need to be taken. These reports are taken right after the treatment session with the Occupational Therapist. These reports are put in to the personal file of the patients. Evaluations may also be done on a patient. Evaluations are used for placement of a patient in school or other education programs that best fit the ability of the patient (Klassen, written communication). Proposals, handouts, and request are another type of documentation Occupational Therapist may have to write. An Occupational Therapist may have new ideas for research or treatment plans, which would require a proposal. Handouts are given to teachers, social workers, parent’s of the client, and others who may want to be educated on the treatment plan and the disability of the client. Handouts can include pamphlets, brochures, and medical research papers. Through the knowledge of an Occupational Therapist there maybe the need to request funding for a research program from the government and other non-profit companies that may support new research in Occupational Therapy (Klassen, written communication). Along with the requirement of writing proposals, progress reports, and handouts Occupational Therapist are required to have great grammar skills and spelling skills. Occupational Therapist Nancy Klassen thought it was important to have a vast vocabulary. Through the writings Occupational Therapist need to use vocabulary as an essential factor towards the credibility an Occupational Therapist may have. Grammar and a vast vocabulary are important to help with the explanation on treatment plans and other medical terminology that maybe used for the patients disability (Klassen, written communication). Presentations may need to be presented from Occupational Therapist requires public speaking skills. An Occupational Therapist needs to be able to give information to a group of other Occupational Therapist, parents, physicians, social workers, and educators. The wide rage of knowledge from the listens’ can not limit an Occupational Therapist on the information that is given to the group during the presentation. Presentations include presenting new ideas and new research to other Occupational Therapist. Another form of presentations includes delivering information on a treatment plan to the family and educators who interact with a patient (Klassen, written communication). Many Occupational Therapists communicate using telephone or email. Through the use of a computer email is an easy way to communicate with people within the same office or on a patient’s treatment. Occupational Therapist may need to get a hold of educators for a patient. The World Wide Web seems to be an easy and speedy way for interactions between different people (Klassen, written communication). Klassen, ORT, believes that social skills are the most important part of an Occupational Therapist. She felt that social skills can lead an Occupational Therapist to successfulness. Another aspect Klassen, OTR, felt Occupational Therapist must have the ability to teach the information in a meaningful and clear manner to others (Klassen, written communication). Through emailing Klassen, OTR, these are the ideas that she felt Occupational Therapist must posses to become successful in the medical field as an Occupational Therapist (Klassen, written communication). STYLE Each profession provides a style manual for that occupation. This means there are many different style manuals. Occupational Therapists use the American Medical Association Manual of Style (AMA). AMA is on its 10th edition which was newly updated in 2007. American Psychological Association (APA) is a commonly used manual within colleges and high schools. APA is on its 5th edition which was updated as of 2003. Looking through these two different style manuals I found many differences. Some of the major differences included the use of terms, numbers, and the reference list. AMA is a medical manual which serves for a person who is in the medical field where as APA is used for psychologist and literature workers along with a few other professions. AMA seemed to focus more of the manuals attention on using measurements, numbers, statistic, typography, medical indexes, and manuscript preparation. APA focused more on the design, grammar, and gender12. AMA references are important within a research paper. Reference list provides readers with acknowledgements, where additional information on the topic can be found, and providing more support for a researcher’s paper. A reference list needs to be complete and in the correct format so all medical profession can understand the meaning of the reference page. Thoroughness of the reference page can aid another researcher to farther there knowledge on the topic read in the research paper. Within in the reference list misspelling of last names, Journal names, internet sites, along with incorrect page numbers. AMA style manual also suggest reading the primary source when writing a research paper where a writer may take a secondary source from another paper11. The reference list within an AMA style manual research paper should be number. Arabic number system should be used when doing the reference list. The reference list goes in order of from when the reference is used. This means that the first reference used would the first reference on the resource page. This does not involve using last name as an alphabetical order reference list. It is strictly by when it is used11. APA’s style manual is used to identify reference used within the paper. The reference list is only used to cite any sources used within the paper. As an author, of an APA format paper, there is a need to check over the reference list and cited sources to make sure both appear with in the paper. The citations with in a paper along with the reference list needs to be correct and the same for each reference. If there is a misspelled word or an incorrect writing within a manuscript the author of the paper is at cost for the mistake. The reference list needs to be in alphabetical order. Alphabetical order starts with the first author’s last name in a reference. If there are multiple authors with the same last name the next letter to use is the first initial of the first name of the author’s12. Abbreviations maybe used within an AMA style manual paper. If many abbreviations are being used within one paper it may become confusing for people reading the paper. Abbreviations are acceptable if one word will be used multiple times within the same paper. This will save space within the paper as well. Some instructors may put a limit on how many abbreviations may be used within one paper11. Ideal use of abbreviations includes numerous terms. Academic degrees along with certificates and some kind of honor can be abbreviated within a paper. Within the United States military titles are another form that can be abbreviated with in an AMA style manual paper. A few other potential words that can be abbreviated include days of the week, addresses, states, countries, and titles of people11. Within an APA paper many instructors prefer that abbreviations are used sparingly. APA instructors feel abbreviations affect the flow of a paper if to many are used. Abbreviations in a paper include measurements, time, and, chemical compounds. APA does accept abbreviations that are offend used. An example from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association included â€Å"IQ, REM, ESP, AIDS†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 12(105). APA style allows the use of numbers to be kept as numerals and not written out in certain situations. APA style believes it is easier to follow numerals than written out numbers. A few instances where numbers can be kept as numerals include a mixed fraction, measure of time, temperature measurements, and a measurement of a currency12. Numbers that should be written out according to the APA style include the beginning of a sentence. This also includes if it is a title, or a heading. Other written out numbers include one when it is used as a pronoun within a sentence, and when a number is being used to rank items or people11. APA style’s rule towards the use of number includes written and numerals. If a number is below 10 it should be written out. If a number is above 10 it can be written out as a number. Within a paper numerals and written numbers can be combined. An example of this would be 6 million. The six is in a form of a numeral, but the million is written out11. AMA and APA style manuals have identical formats. Both of these styles include a title page for the article, an abstract, the paper, and than a resource page. Within the paper it is where the differences of these two different style manuals com into play. A paper written in the style manual AMA includes subheadings that are in all capitalized letters where as an APA style manual does not. In APA the first letter of the subheading is the only letter capitalized. The resource page for the style manuals is also very different. Each style manual has there own way to cite and reference articles11, 12. CONCLUSION Occupational Therapy is a great medical field that is used to help patients improve skills that maybe hard for them. It is also a challenging profession that requires the knowledge of many skills that will be used when working. Occupational Therapists discourse is important towards the building and developing of new research within the profession. Discourse is done through the use of different communication with other Occupational Therapist and other medical doctors. Occupational Therapy is a newer field that started in the early 1900’s. During the beginning Occupational Therapy was used for solders and mentally the ill. Through history Occupational Therapy has changed its way of caring and understand the use of occupations for patients. Now Occupational Therapy is used to assistant many other people who have disabilities. Many resources can be used by Occupational Therapist to gain more knowledge for the profession. There are many resources Occupational Therapist can use. Res ources include websites, academic journals, and Occupational Therapy associations. Occupational Therapists need to have a vast understanding and use of communication skills. A

The Importance Of Agriculture To Nigeria Environmental Sciences Essay

The Importance Of Agriculture To Nigeria Environmental Sciences Essay Agriculture is the engine that stimulates economic change in a nation development; Agriculture occurs when people begin planting and cultivating crops. It is said to be natures food web and the rechaneling of energy for human planting and animal consumption. To simplify, agriculture involves redirecting natures natural flow of the food web. Nigeria is very blessed with agriculture resources, and if you recall, this is what the green colour symbolizes in our nations flag. Most parts of the country experience rich soil, and good rainfall, not to mention the warm year, round temperature. About 80% of the land is cultivable, and about 13% of the land is forested, and livestock are also maintained by farmers. In the 1960s agriculture was the foundation for the nations economy and Nigeria was self sufficient in terms of food. Before the discovery of oil, our economy was sustained by agriculture. The sector remains the largest contributor to the Nigerian economy, accounting for over 38% of the non-oil foreign exchange earning and employing about 70% of the active labour force of the population. Although, the sector has suffered much neglect since the discovery of petroleum in commercial quantity in 1958 but its importance cannot be over emphasized in the nations economy. Data shows that at independence in 1960 the contribution of agriculture to the GDP was about 60%, which is typical for developing agrarian nations. In 1998, Agriculture was said to have contributed an estimated 32% of Gross Domestic Product (DGP) to Nigerian economy and an estimated 32 percent of labour force was employed. In 2006 contributed 43% to GDP of US $142 billion and employed 70% of the population. The importance of Agriculture is so numerous but to mention a few. People depend on a wide range of Agricultural products in almost all aspects of life. It is a key economic driver. It is central to individual livelihoods and alleviates poverty. Provider of energy fuel-wood and medical plants, it helps in Nations economic growth, e.g. Agriculture contributes between 40 and 60% of the GDP of many African Countries. Agriculture is a key to healthy biosphere, it provide food, which is a key determinant of human health. In general the contribution of Agriculture sector provide food incremental markets for new products manufactured in the industrial sector, it has contributed immensely on the supply of new materials to other sectors, tax revenue to the Government to provide Foreign exchange. Having seen some of the importance of Agriculture, how then do we attain 70% growth in Agriculture sector each year? To achieve growth, bold steps must be taken towards changing our orientation on Agriculture and reversing the trend. For long we have merely been paying lip service to the revival of Agriculture as the main stay of our economy. It is on the drive to bring back the past glories of Agriculture and use it to complement our oil earning: that we came up with the initiative tagged Quest to achieved food sufficiency. CHPTER 2 QUEST TO ACHIEVED FOOD SFFICIENCY Quest to achieved food sufficiency is a way of making sure our food, Fibers, energy and recreational opportunities cheap, sufficient high quality and safe. Quest to achieve food sufficiency is the availability of food or food in excess. This can be accomplished by involving Nigerian youths in farming. That is inculcating the sense of participation in Agricultural sector. Gone are the days where farming is left for retired workers and those in the rural areas. Food is the most essential thing in mans live. According to Abraham Maslow an industrial psychologist, came up with the theory of physiological needs of man and top on the list was the desire for food as the basic need. According to him, after a man has satisfied his need for food, he beings to crave for clothing and then for shelter. Today food which is the basic need of man is readily unavailable all over talk less of man being satisfied with it. This as whole led to world food crisis and no country is unaffected. Particularly years, 2007-2008 saw dramatic rises in world food price, creating a global crisis and causing political and economical instability and social unrest in both poor and developed nations. Although it is almost impossible to pinpoint the exact cause of soaring food price, experts have placed the blame on rising fuel costs, lower agricultural production, weather shocks, more meat consumption, shifts to bio-fuel crops and bad policies. The hike in food price, threaten to increase malnutrition. Malnutrition impairs the ability to lean or to work and reduces resistance to disease. Hunger is a cause of poverty. Last week UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that 963 million people are now hungry, which means another 40 million people have been pushed into hunger. In addition, child mortality (about 3.5 children die yearly) is attributed to malnutrition since childrens health and cognitive development is sensitive to the overall development. Yet, in the face of this poverty and hunger, our work force is not left untouched or unaffected as this poverty and hunger reduces productivity. EFFECT OF THE WORLD FOOD CRISIS ON NIGERIA Nigeria has never had food security. It has as usual been importing rice, beans and other food items. Since the sources of supplied of these importation are in food crisis it has a spill over effect on Nigeria. The most silent area is that food price will be on the high side, and result to low quantity of food to be import thereby, causing instability in the country economic, social and political sector. Many will starve to death, crime rate will be on the high side, and the rate of poverty will be extremely high. To avert possible food crisis in Nigeria serious, practical and effective implementation needs to be taking in agriculture sector. Poverty in Nigeria is predominantly rural. Of all Nigerians who are poor, nearly two-third lives in rural areas. For the near future therefore, reducing poverty in Nigeria will depend largely on stimulating rural growth. The most powerful engine of rural growth is agricultural growth, because agriculture has important forward and backward linkages to the local economy on both the production and the consumption side. This will in turn make Nigeria to be sufficient in food and agricultural production, and join the league of industrialized nations by the year 2020 because, agriculture is and has always been a major player in the game of industrial revolution. MECHANISED FARMING AND MAXIMISING AGRICULTURE OUT PUT IN NIGERIA Mechanization of the agricultural industry is the way out of solving Nigerias problem instead of the tractorization belief by some. Moreover, this can be achieve by matching up human input with mechanization, bringing in machinery and increase the scale of production, so that whatever you produce will match the population growth rate. No doubt, Nigeria soil is rich and the climate good enough to grow nearly all kinds of food crop anybody can think of. What is required is to get an expert that will manage the soil. Some areas might not belief in tractorization but the use of animal plough, the best is to improve on the technique so you can accelerate their production rate. Some areas have zero tillage, you plant and it will germinate, that kind of place does not need tractors but planters. In addition, part of mechanization plan that is proper is to plan for irrigation itself to water the plant where there is no rain. There is need for improvement on subsistent farmers as record has it that 95% of agriculture product is from then. Subsistent farmers cultivate not more than four hectares. To move from the level of subsistent farming to scale farming, mechanization input must be there. The average yield of maize crop in Nigeria is 3.5 tones per hectare, compared to 8.6 tones per hectare in developed countries. This is very low and cannot be equal with the work force. With this low yield, commercial agriculture is hard to come by. From the global experience its suggests that the path ways along which commercial agriculture can develop, is by successful model ranging from highly diversified systems made up of small holders who deeply involved in commercial production to more specialized systems made up of large-scale mechanized farmers who produce exclusively for the market. Mechanized farming is an easy or stress free farming and the yield is far higher than hoe/merchant farming. It goes along way attracting the youths INVOLVING NIGERIAN YOUTH IN MORDEN DAY AGRICULTURE One of the factors that threatened the sustainability of agriculture is the lack of involvement of our youth in it. It is becoming increasingly difficult to attract our youth in agricultural pursuits. The average age of persons involved in domestic agriculture is 50-65 years old and without increased participation from our youth, by the year 2014, the average age range of agriculture producers will be approximately 65-70 years. The contribution of the youth is essentially important in the development of rural areas. The youth are essential human beings in the development of rural areas. Studies have shown that rural areas, especially in developing countries like Nigeria, have high population ratio when compared to the urban centre. Youths in this context has been defined as individuals male or female above ten but below forty-five years. Indeed, the vital source of work force for development is seen within this range. The employment rate in this country is very low. According to United Nations, population found, approximately three million people in Nigeria, mainly youths, move into the labour market annually with just few getting jobs. These young Nigerians can be re-trained in agriculture sector. When we groom our young people in the process of domestic agriculture, it will in turn develop the rural areas, which is the root of economic upliftment for the nation. The YPAD initiated QUEST TO ACHIEVED FOOD SUFFICIENCY in order to involve young people in agriculture sector. This is a yearly program. The program provides the opportunity for development of practical skills in the areas of farm management, production and marketing of crops, livestock, as well as the business administration of a successful farm enterprise. ACTUALIZING MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND 7-POINT AGENDA The MDGs are simply targets and indicators to measure the progress in achieving the eradication of poverty, achieving universal access to primary education, promoting gender parity and women empowerment, reducing child mortality, improve maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability, developing a global partnership for development. This project was signed in 2000 about nine years ago, with just six years reach 2015. The impact in agric sector is not visible like in the aspect of HIV/AIDS. The YPAD initiative is concentrating on youths and youths are in the vanguard of change. This program will contribute to the achievement of some of the MDGs goals such as, eradication of poverty by being self-employed, promoting gender parity and empowerment of women by giving equal opportunity to the female youth. Areas such as reducing of child mortality improve maternal health; ensure environmental sustainability and developing a global partnership for development will feel the impact. This project will be cited in the rural areas, since it has been revealed that the youth constitute the highest percentage of the rural population. The development of rural areas in developing countries is the root of economic upliftment for the nation. 7-POINT AGENDA The Yaradua 7-point agenda is the vehicle designed by the administration to take Nigeria to a state where the necessary infrastructure will be in place for our collective benefit. Its expected, that, the Nigerian economy would become one of the top 20 in the world by 2020 through the agenda. That means we are aiming at a growth rate of 13 percent per year in the next twelve years and must be sustained to remain in the big league. The seven elements of the agenda are Energy/Power, Security/Niger Delta, Wealth Creation, Food Security, Education/Human Capital Development, Transportation/Mass Transit and Land Reforms. This project is designed to improve the general well being of the citizens and taking Nigeria to the biggest 20 economies in the world by the year 2020. To attain growth rate of 13% annually, some sectors that leads to export of its products has to be consider. And one of this sector include agriculture which could earn the country over 60% GPD annually which is one of the objective of YPAD. This program will touch the lives of many Nigerians and see to the contribution towards the success of 7-point agenda. CHAPTER 3 PLAN OF ACTION We have mapped out strategic plans of inculcating unemployed youths into farming sectors. This plan has worked in the entertainment industry and today the entertainment industry is known all over the country. Massive awareness would be created through media, posters, handbill, signpost, billboard, Local government offices etc. whereby some unemployed youths who are willing to go into farming business or who want to be self-employed will be encouraged to come out in mass and register. The registration will take place in any of the banks within the country for the period of two months only. Immediately after registration audition commences, only twenty five persons will be short listed to participate in the program. Land will be allocating to the twenty-five candidates. Since this is our first time, we intend to start with only twenty-five persons, five per group that is forming only five groups. The program is expected to last for only three months. During this period participants will be accommodated and well catered for. At the end of the third month, harvesting will take place. They will be judge base on the quantities of their farm product. The participants are to undergo series of lecture such as farm management, keeping of farm record, pest control, storage and preservation of farm products and entrepreneurship. In order to make the program more attractive, participants will pay visit to farms, organization and some personnel. Area/Location Without land for cultivation, this project cannot be achieved. Acquiring land for cultivation is one of the major challenges most youth encounter. There is no doubt Nigeria is blessed with verse land. From research, it was estimated that 79 million hectares out of Nigerias total land area of about 91million hectares were arable. However, only about 32 million hectares (or 46% of the cultivable area) were being cultivated out of which 90% of agricultural output is accounted for household with less than two hectares under cropping. The remaining land are left uncultivated these lands can be cultivated by Nigerias youth if given the chance and means. Three states are chosen namely FCT, Niger and Nasarawa States. But only one out of the three states wills this event take place and this depends on the availability of land. Consolation Prices: To make the program more interesting and Competitive, there is going to be prize for the best group, as well as other groups. After harvesting the group with the highest yield have be sponsored for next farming season. The idea of introducing prize is to enhance their performance, help to bring out the best in each participant. Harvesting: The farm products belong to the participants. The instructors will teach the participants how to preserve their farm products and expose them to the buyers. CHAPTER 4 CROP Since this is going to be the first event we intended to start with maize and cowpea. Maize is grown virtually in all parts of the country; it is grown more in the middle belt and in the north central. Maize: Maize (zea mays) is an annual plant which belongs to family Gramineae and Genus zea. Zea mays L. have a normal Chromosome complement of ten pairs. It is divided into seven groups. The classification is based largely on the character of the kernels. Maize is a warm weather plant. It grows from sea level to 300 metre altitudes. The most suitable temperature for germination is 21oc and for growth 32oc. Fifty to Sixty centimeters of well distributed rain is conducive to proper growth. Maize is a cereal plant that produces grains that can be cooked, roasted, fried, ground, pounded or crushed to prepare various food items. Apart from direct human consumption maize is also useful as medicines and as raw materials for industries such as breweries, pharmaceutical companies, baby cereals, livestock feeds and other industries. The global production of maize is estimated to about 300 Million tones per year. In Nigeria, its production is quite common in all parts of the country, form the north to the south, with an annual production of about 5.6 Million tones. Until recent years, the bulk of maize grain produced in Nigeria was from the south-west zone. It was reported that western Nigeria generally produced about 50% of Nigeria grain maize, the remaining 50% being split between the north and east. Although large proportion of the grain maize is still produce form the south-western part, there has been a dramatic shift of dry grain production to the savanna, especially the Northern Guinea savanna i.e. the Middle and Northern belt of Nigeria where sunshine is adequate and rainfall is moderate. Under these conditions, storage of grains can be accomplished without much damage from insect pests. In these zones farmers tends to prefer maize cultivation to sorghum. This trend may have been brought about for several reasons including availability of streak resistant varieties for all ecological zones in Nigeria, availability of high yielding hybrid varieties, increase in maize demand coupled with the federal Government imposed ban on importation of rice, maize and wheat. Local production had to be geared up to meet the demand for direct human consumption and industries. The name maize is derived from the South American Indian Arawat Carib word Mahiz. It is also known as Indian corn or corn in America. It was introduced into Nigeria probably in the 6th century by the Portuguese. Today maize crop covers about 1Milion hectare out of a Million hectares it occupied in Africa and it is the second most important cereal crop in Nigeria. The two varieties of maize are Hybrid and composite but for now we are making do with composite maize. LAND CLEARING Land clearing must be carried out with minimal displacement of the topsoil. It requires judicious use of heavy machinery coupled with sound soil conservation measures that will preserve the soil fertility status, which varies under long term fallow vegetation. Minimum tillage is a feasible way of sustaining high soil fertility under intensive maize farming. PLANTING TIME Sowing date is an essential component of crop management. Yields decline with lateness of planting after an optimum time, usually the start of the rains. Response of varieties to other inputs is dependent upon planting time. Optimum planting in each of the major agro ecological zones of Nigeria falls with these following ranges. Forest Zone Mid April 2nd Week in May Forest Savanna Transition 3rd Week in April 3rd Week in May. Northern Guinea Savanna Last Week in May 1st Week in June Sudan Savanna First 2 Weeks in June SOIL Maize is best adapted to well drain Sandy loam to silty loam soils. Water stagnation is extremely harmful to the crop; therefore, proper drainage is a must for the success of the crop especially during Kharif season. Maize will not thrive on heavy clays, especially lowlands. It can be grown successfully in soil whose PH ranges from 5.5 to 6.5 PLANT NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS For good growth and high yield, the maize plant must be supplied with adequate nutrients particularly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. DISEASE CONTROL Although several diseases have been identified on maize in Nigeria, only few of them significantly reduce maize yields. They are maize streak, downy mildew, maize mottle/chlorotic stunk, curvularia leaf spot, stalk and ear rots. In order to make farming economically feasible, resistant line were bred and made available to farmers. With these efforts, maize streak, smut and rust have been kept under control. Genes for downy mildew resistance has been incorporated into streak resistant varieties. Scientists in Nigeria have developed high yielding disease resistant /tolerant maize varieties. The newly developed varieties of maize have between 90 and 95% resistance to the pathogen without extra fungicide protection. Striga hermonthica is a threat to increased maize production in Nigeria particularly in the high yield potential savanna zone. Scientists have identified some inbreed and hybrids that have consistently demonstrated tolerance to S. hermonthica under heavy infestation also reported that the use of NPK and urea fertilizers as effective means of controlling S. hermonthica in maize field. WEED CONTROL Weeds cause severe yield reduction in maize in Nigeria because they complete with the crop for nutrients. Water and light weed controls is the most expensive operation in traditional maize farming since it is procured manually. Often, the labour is too expensive causing many farmers to abandon weed control thereby resulting in very low yields. INSECT PEST CONTROL There has been a renewed interest in the use of natural plant products in the protection of stored agricultural product against insect pest in storage. The use of plant products in form of powders in the management of stored products coleopteran is the most convenient, the powders are easy to apply, and the commodities remain clean after treatments. Moreover, the moisture contents of plants have been used successfully for the control of different species of stored product pests. POTENTIAL IMPACTS/POTENTIAL BENEFICIARIES Maize grain production in Nigeria would have at least double from 7m metric tones in 2004 to 14.0M metric tones by 2007 or 21.0M metric tones by 2010. Public/Private synergy for enhanced production established. Role of Nigeria as a lead player in disaster mitigation strengthened. Income generation, wealth creation, poverty reduction and improved food security through maize farming and related agribusiness improved. COWPEA Cowpea is one of the most ancient crops known to man. Its origin and subsequent domestication is associated with pearl millet and sorghum in Africa. It is now a broadly adapted and highly variable crop, cultivated around the world primarily for seed, but also as a vegetable, a cover crop and for fodder. Cowpea has a number of common names, including crowder pea, black-eyed pea and southern pea. It is known internationally as lubia, niebe, coupe or feijole. However, they are all the species Vigna unguiculata (L) walp, in older references may be identified as vigna sinensis (L). The largest production is in Africa, with Nigeria and Niger predominating. World wide production of cowpeas is approximately 20Million acres. Cowpea is considered more tolerant to drought than Soya beans and better adapted to sandy soils. Many cultivars have a vining growth habit or bush type cultivars. But bush type is better suited for direct combining. PLANT DESCRIPTION All cultivated cowpea varieties are considered warm season and adapted to heat and drought conditions. Cowpeas typically reach a canopy height of 30 to 36 inches, although the more determinate bush types may reach only 24 inches. The seed pods are borne above the leaf axil, making the pods very visible. The seeds pod is typically 3 to 6 inches long and has 6 to 13 seeds per pod. The seed weight per bush is 60 pounds with about 3,000 to 4,000 seeds per pound. UTILIZATION The fresh type referred to as southern peas are shelled green and the peas can be cooked fresh and canned or frozen for later use, but there is also consumption of the whole pea pod as a fresh vegetable. While the dried beans is frequently sold directly to the consumer after cleaning or freezing. Cowpea is consider nutritious with a protein content of about 23%, fat content of 1.3%, fiber content of 1.8%, carbohydrate content of 67% and water content of 8 9%. As in most legumes, the amino acid profile complements cereal grains. PLANTING/GROWING For optimum yield, cowpeas should be planted in early June, although planting dates from late may through mid June are appropriate. The bush types yield better on closer row spacing. The seed should be planted similar to soybeans at 1 to 11/2 inches deep. FERTILITY MANAGEMENT As a legume, cowpea fixes its own nitrogen and does not need nitrogen fertilizer. Infact, some of the vigorous, vining, varieties of cowpeas are excellent nitrogen producers as a cover crop. The soil PH should be 6.0 or higher. DISEASES AND INSECTS The major insect pest is cowpea curculio, and the major disease is root knot, a severe root disease induced by root knot nematodes (melo dogyne spp) but active breeding has taken place for resistant varieties. GROWING Growing cowpea is fairly straight forward, with management practices being similar to soybeans. Proper site selection is important. Cowpea is well adapted to sandy soils, and will perform well on rich, well drained soils, but should not be grown on wet or poorly drained soils. INTERCROPPING AND CROP ROTATION Cowpea has out standing potential for intercropping and crop rotation. In Africa, cowpea has been intercropped for a longtime with various other crops such as maize, groundnuts, millet and other grins. Report shows that 98% of cowpea grown in Africa is intercropped. Cowpea can be intercropped with taller plants, such as maize, particularly in high rainfalls areas, due to their exceptional shade tolerance. They are also outstanding as straight rotational crop because of their susceptibility to root knot nematodes and their beneficial effect on subsequent maize crops, which lasts even for the second succeeding crop. ADVATAGES FOR INTERCROPPING WITH MAIZE Higher total yields then sole crop yields, probably due to less intraspecific competition. Greater yield stability More efficient utilization of environmental resources Better weed control Provision of insurance against crop failure. Improved quality provided by variety Maize as a sole crop requires a larger area to produce the same yield as the maize component in an intercropping system. CHAPTER 5 PROPOSED ESTIMATES FOR QUEST TO ACHIEVEFOOD SUFFICIENCY 2008 LAND About 10,000 hectares located at Yangoji, Dafa, Tungan Galadima, Kwali Area Council all in FCT. The land is lease at N510, 000/hectare for 50years. For 25hectare it will cost N12, 750,000. But there is provision for mortgage finance option whereby the same land is used as collateral. With mortgage finance we are allowed to pay 50% (N6, 625,000.00) and spread the remaining payment within a particular period. The land can be renewed after 50years. No doubt, the mortgage finance scheme is preferred. FURNISHED THREE BEDROOM APARTMENT APPLICANCES QTY UNITY PRICE(N) AMOUNT(N) Accommodation: Three bedroom flat for 25 persons 2 250,000 500,000.00 Carpet for the three rooms 6 room 2,500/room 15,000.00 Rug in the seating room 2room 45,000 90,000.00 Six spring student mattresses 25 4000 100,000.00 Pillows 25 500 12,500.00 21 Flat screen Television 2 50,000 100,000.00 Refrigerator 2 85,000 170,000.00 Stabilizer 2 15000 30,000.00 Ceiling fans 8 3000 24,000.00 Generator of 1.5kv Yamaha 2 50,000 100,000.00 Total 1,141500.00 PUBLICITY Announcement/airing on Electronic Media 4,500,000.00 Newspaper: Full page three times for three weeks 1,134,000.00 Posters 500,000.00 Banners 500,000.00 Hand bill 200,000.00 Bill board 3,000,000.00 TOTAL N9, 334,000.00 FEEDING MEAL FOR TWENTY FIVE PERSONS Three hundred naira per meal, for three square meal per person in a day it is N900 (nine hundred naira) N300/meal/N900/person/day. Three square meal for twenty five persons in a day cost N22, 500 (twenty two thousand five hundred) N22, 500/twenty five persons/three square meal/day. Twenty five persons in ninety days N2, 025,000.00 (two million twenty five thousand naira) N2, 025,000/twenty five persons/ninety days Bottle water N500, 000.00 TOTAL N2, 525,000.00 THE QUANTITY OF SEED NEEDED SEED QTY/Ha QTY/20Ha UNIT PRICE AMOUNT Maize seed (ACR 97) 20kg 500kg 150/kg 75,000.00 Cowpea 20kg 500kg 200/kg 100,000.00 Apron star 55,000.00 Pest Control/weeding 985,000.00 TOTAL 1,215,000.00 Apron star (seed greasing): for slurry seed, treatment, fungicide, insecticide and seed treatment. PLANT NUTRIENTS Plant nutrients involve organic and inorganic nutrients. Nutrients Bags/ha. Bags/20ha. Unit Price/Bag(N) Amount (N) Fertilizer (15:15:15) NPK 6 bags 150 bags 3,000/bag 450,000.00 Urea (20:10:10) 2 bags 50 bags 2,500/bag 125,000.00 Organic nutrients/manure 100,000.00 TOTAL 675,000.00 FARM MACHINERY FARM TOOLS QTY UNIT PRICE(N) AMOUNT(N) Hoes (Galma) 5 1,500 7,500.00 Machetes 5 1,000 5,000.00 Tractor (Hiring for 3days) 2 15,000/day 90,000.00 Planter (plating for 3day) 2 5,000/day 30,000.00 Tot

Changes in the Family Institution

Changes in the Family Institution Evaluate the impact changes to the family have in a social and political context In order to discuss the changes the family as an institution has gone through and the impact that these changes have had, it is necessary to define the ‘family’. The term ‘family’ is often used to mean a nuclear family, for example two parents, usually married with one plus children. This definition however, in no longer relevant to twenty first century Britain. Factors including ageing populations which result in households containing no children; the delay in having children due to the increase in popularity of career minded independent women; single parenthood caused by divorce/separation; single women conceiving; and finally household division, in other words separated parents remarrying or cohabiting with other partners and their children, known as the reconstituted family. Policies are viewed by some as trying to reinforce this ‘normal’ view of the family. Many policy makers made the assumption, as Dean points out â€Å"the ‘traditi onal’ family consisted of a breadwinning husband who could expect to enjoy life-long full-time employment, earning a wage sufficient†¦to support a dependant wife† (2001:268). They argue that this model never did ‘fit’ society’s reality and as a result, many families who do not fill this mould could have cause to feel estranged from society and its ideology. Kiernan points out that ‘few developments in family life have been quite as dramatic as the recent rises in unmarried cohabitation and having children outside of marriage’ (2002:3). She also states that we should celebrate the family in all its diverse forms and match legislation to support this. Explain the relationship between family structure and Social Issues. Teenage pregnancies, often portrayed as a socially ‘deviant’ act are currently on the decline. Lisa Aria puts forward reasons why Policy makers are explaining the occurrence of teenage pregnancies. With contraception and abortion readily available, they suggest that early childbearing must caused by low expectations of mothers. In other words due to poor educational opportunities â€Å"they see no reason not to get pregnant† (Aria, 2003:200). Aria however, puts a positive spin on this theory when she states that â€Å"many young mothers have a weak attachment to the education system or paid work before pregnancy, and mothering, for them, is a meaningful vocation† and that it â€Å"should not be read as a sign of immaturity, buts its reverse† (212-213). State Intervention. The introduction of the welfare state was originally designed to support a small group of single mothers who were either abandoned or widowed. As Primus and Beeson point out â€Å"welfare has evolved to serve mostly families headed by divorce, separated, or never married mothers† (2002:191). The rise of claimants in these categories, and the growth of cohabitation as an alternative to marriage, has caused â€Å"policymakers and researchers to question whether welfare and tax policies influence a range of decisions about family, including decisions to marry, have children, or cohabit† (Primus and Beeson, 2002:121). This concern over whether means-tested benefits are subconsciously persuading single parent families is reflected in new legislation. Perhaps in a attempt to distance means-tested benefits from single parent families, Dean remarks on how the government has only just â€Å"stopped short of directly compelling mothers to work† (2001:271) with the implemen tation of compulsory ‘work-focused interviews’ for single parents on income support. Evaluate the impact of key family legislation on: Mothers. The main legislation to effect mothers is related to the National Childcare Strategy put forward in 1998. Jane Lewis points out the aims were â€Å"linked to the attack on poverty and social exclusion† and this included subsidised childcare (2003:219). As Dean points out, these policies can be â€Å"fuelling personal moral dilemmas† (2001:274) as policy makers are sending out mixed messages. For example, the government proposed that we â€Å"place greater responsibility on parents for the behaviour of their children† (Kroll and Barrett, quoted in Dean 2001), however the pressure on parents, especially mothers to become involved with paid employment is persistent. Dean’s qualitative study entitled â€Å"Working Parenthood and Parental Responsibility†, found that due to this pressure to find employment encouraged by means-tested benefits such as the Working Tax Credit and the notion of ‘family friendly companies’, cause women to take up e mployment that is temporary, most often part-time and poorly paid. As Bryson and Marsh point out â€Å"recipients of in-work benefits seldom move on to higher paid jobs† (1996:272) and often are unable to dedicate more time and effort into the paid position due to familial responsibilities. Dean does claim however, that some mothers stated that they viewed their â€Å"lack of responsibility as a positive advantage in so far that their employment†¦did not interfere with those commitments that are for them of greater ontological significance† (2001:276). Fathers. Dean summarizes his research on working parenthood by stating, â€Å"men (should) have the same incentives as women to combine employment and parental responsibilities† (2001:283). In 2005, the government announced the proposals of a plan to extend Paternity allowance as a manoeuvre in this direction. As Susan Smillie (2005) states in the Guardian, â€Å"fathers could receive up to three months statutory paternity pay if their partner returns to work after six months†, on top of the two weeks paid leave known as Statutory Paternity Leave. This is a move in the right direction from a father’s perspective. While this would suit many career-minded women who earn more than their partners do, many mothers would perhaps not be so willing to leave their four/five month old baby with their partner if this was a first child. It has been noted by Dean however, that further developments in maternity allowances could seek to disadvantage women in the workplace if they are no t matched by paternity allowances for men, as â€Å"employers might otherwise become increasingly reluctant to engage women† (2001:282). Children. The Child Support Act (1991) is another major legislation that has affected families and their wellbeing. This legislation affects fathers and mothers, however it is the child(ren) at the centre. The aim of the Child Support Act is to recover ‘maintenance’ from the father, which is then paid to the mother. The Family Law Reform Act (1987) and The Children’s Act (1989) make a clear link between â€Å"a father’s obligation to make a financial contribution for his children’s care and his right to have contact with them† (Burghes, Clarke and Cronin, 1997). However, as Bagilhole points out, where the Child Support Agency retrieved money from â€Å"absentee fathersit did not benefit many lone mothers and their children because if they were dependent on benefits the child support they received was deducted pound for pound from income support† (1997:124). Analyse the effect of the media on family values and family structures. William Douglas has outlined the representation of the family and the values it promotes in his study cited in Television Families. He states that Post-War television portrayed a family consisting of women who were sexual but predominantly domestic. May (quoted in Douglas) points out that â€Å"motherhood was the ultimate fulfilment of female sexuality† (1988:140). Douglas states that this could have influenced the rebellion against familial constraints in the 1960’s as after the war there were numerous women in work, which did not coincide with the family ideology portrayed in the media. He states that the domestic roles within the household portrayed in contemporary television with regard to chores and child rearing, are more equally weighted that in prior decades. Women are usually portrayed as being in paid employment and that spouses are more openly intimate. He does state however, that unlike modern society, divorce is rare as â€Å"spouses simply do not divorce, even when relational and/or economic stress appears acute† (2003:112). He states that the ideology present in contemporary media has altered dramatically from the past as it now emphasises â€Å"personal ambition and achievement rather than family life and family relations† (2003:134). Works Cited: Aria, L. (2003) ‘Low Expectations, Sexual Attitudes and Knowledge: Explaining Teenage Pregnancy and Fertility in English Communities’, The Sociological Review, vol. 51, May, pp.199-215. Bagilhole, B. (1997) Equal Opportunities and Social Policy, Essex: Longman Ltd. Dean, H. (2001) ‘Working Parenthood and Parental Obligation’, Critical Social Policy, vol. 21, pp 267-286. Douglas, W. (2003) Television Families: Is There Something Wrong with Suburbia, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Kiernan, K. (2002) ‘Cohabitation in Western Europe: Trends, Issues, and Implications’, in Booth, A. and Crouter, A (ed.) Just Living Together: Implications of Cohabitation on Families Children, and Social Policy, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Lewis, J. (2003) ‘Developing Early Years Childcare in England, 1997-2002: The Choices for (Working) Mothers’, Social Policy and Administration, vol. 37, June, pp 219-238. Primus, W. and Beeson, J (2002) ‘Safety Net Programs, Marriage and Cohabitation’ in Booth, A. and Crouter, A (ed.) Just Living Together: Implications of Cohabitation on Families Children, and Social Policy, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Smillie, S. (2005) ‘Paternity Leave’, The Guardian, 19 October. Internet Resources: Burghes, L., Clarke, L., Cronin, N. (1997) Fathers and Fatherhood in Britain. www.jrf.org.uk/knowledge/findings/socialpolicy/sp120.asp Unknown Author, An Introduction on Social Policy: Welfare and Society. http://www2.rgu.ac.uk/publicpolicy/introduction/society.htm

Todays Family :: essays research papers

Surviving in the Ross Sea   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Emperor penguins and Weddell seals are the only marine predators that breath air and live year round in Antarctica Ross Sea. How these two animals are able to live among each other when there diets, hunting depths and area distribution are shared is the question. Ross Sea is called home by six emperor penguin colonies, approximately 180,000 birds, and about 50,000 Weddell seals. It is important, when considering competition between these two species to know that each share above and below water resources however it is below water prey where problems may occur. Several items can be considered to determine true competition overlap. These items include prey selection, using different hunting depths and habitat separation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fish account for most of the diet of both predators (99.3 % for seals and 89-95% for penguins). To take it one step further, Pleuragramma antarcticum, or Antarctica silverfish is the primary prey for each. Of the fish consumed, 88.6% of penguin’s fish diet and 99.3% of the seals diet consist of the Antarctic silverfish. This species of penguins and seals do not select fish of different classes despite body and mouth size difference. Seal prey is slightly larger, yet still considered juvenile as are penguin prey. Absence of larger prey in the penguin diet may be due to the fact that all samples were collected during chick rearing periods. It is possible that adult birds would capture larger fish for themselves and return with slightly smaller sizes for their young. Although seals and penguins hunt for the same size and species of fish, this does not restrict them from cohabitation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Next we will consider the depth at which they hunt. Both, seal and penguins are excellent divers. In order to dive at great depths, these species move oxygen away from the lungs and into the muscles and blood. This allows them to store 3-4 times more oxygen than the average land mammal. In addition, seals and penguins use other techniques to reduce oxygen intake. Examples of this include the reduction of heart rates during long dives and an energy conserving swim pattern called burst and glide. It is known that penguins and seals have the ability to reach similar depths, however, the time below surface varies between the two animals.

wound Care :: Health Care, Pressure Ulcer

Wound care (Pressure Ulcer) Descriptions During community placement, my mentor and I visited M (patient), a 75years old lady, who was presented with a Pressure Ulcer, on the heel of her right leg. On arrival, my mentor asked me to manage M’s wound. However, I have observed and participate in carrying out this skill (wound care) with my mentor on several occasions. I explained the procedure to M and gained her consent to carry out the procedure. The preparation and application of aseptic technique was quite challenging in M’s home, however I washed my hands, worn apron and gloves, and adopt aseptic technique. When I remove the old dressings and assessed the wound, I observed that M’s wound was slightly exudates, odour, sloughs and dry skin (flakes) around the wound. When M asked me, how the wound was, I was not confident to answer her question, but rather turn to my mentor, who then answered her. I displayed the sterile pack on a flat surface and I dipped the gauze into a warm normal saline and gently cleaned the wound; I cleaned the slough and remove the dead tissues, under my mentor’s supervision and I also applied intrasite gel unto the wound bed, and put an antimicrobial heel dressing and securing it with a two way stretch bandages (tubifast). Feelings I was nervous, when my mentor asked me to carry out this procedure and thus, became very careful not to cause more pain to M. Being an invasive procedure, I was worried not to infect the wound when it was exposed, and when I could not answer her question, I felt uncomfortable. Evaluation Being an invasive procedure, I adopt aseptic techniques; Hart (2007) state’s that, employing aseptic technique helps to create an environment (asepsis) free from living pathogenic micro-organisms. Aziz (2009) conceded that, it helps prevent wound from contaminations and other susceptible site, by organism that could cause infection (HCAIs). I gently remove the slough and dead tissues, and applied an intrasite gel unto the wound bed, and then I put an antimicrobial heel dressing on the wound. Fletch (2007) suggests that, the removal of necrotic tissue and thick slough from wound bed, helps to promote healing by creating moist balance and controls bio burden to ensures optimal healing environment. Barrett (2009) concurs that, the management of wound required dressing that can maintain a moist environment, absorbs exudates as well as remain in situ over number of days.

New York City Fighting Influenza :: Journalism Influenza Health Essays

New York City Fighting Influenza New York City's public health officials are pioneering a program to reduce the spread of the influenza epidemic that hit the city over one month ago. The city's approach to disease control is unlike that of any other city in the nation and has been met with much criticism and fear for the lives of New Yorkers. The city's Health Commissioner, Dr. Royal S. Copeland, has refused to close schools, theaters, churches, and places of "public amusement" despite many requests to do so from prominent members of the government's medical community. Public health officials in Philadelphia, Washington, Boston, and Baltimore have taken such measures to reduce crowding--a known cause of the spread of disease. But according to Copeland, closing places of public amusement does not necessarily lessen the instance of physical contact among citizens. Rather, it displaces it and causes panic. (However, he does advise against attending dance halls.) In defending his position to keep schools open, Dr. Copeland commented, "Now how much better it has been to have those children under the constant observation of qualified persons than to close the schools, let the children run the streets and assemble when and where they would and if they get influenza to let them get it under conditions of which the Health Department had no knowledge and in which it was not prepared from the start to deal with the situation in the best way." Copeland went on to explain that the children are inspected from the start of the day and those who have symptoms are either sent home or to a hospital, depending on the caretaking conditions of their homes. Copeland also believes that the schools serve as places of educat ion about the epidemic for children who may also carry the information back to their parents. In response to this approach, former Health Commissioner, Dr. S. S. Goldwater, has announced that Copeland's plan is failing at the expense of the public. He said that the measures to exclude sick children from school are "lamentably weak" and that there is "almost criminal laxity" for carrying out education on the epidemic. Goldwater is currently working to get schools and theaters ordered closed to avoid the dangers that crowding brings. But Copeland's first concerns are ventilation, sanitation, and education. Therefore, theaters are used as centers of education and must remain open.

How Physical Activity Can Improve on Overall Health Essay -- essays re

How Physical Activity can Improve Overall Health and Personal Development Benefits Of Physical Activity   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The benefits of exercise extend far beyond weight management. Research shows that regular physical activity can help reduce your risk for several diseases and health conditions and improve your overall quality of life. Regular physical activity can help protect you from the following health problems. Heart Disease and Stroke   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Daily physical activity can help prevent heart disease and stroke by strengthening your heart muscle, lowering your blood pressure, raising your high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels (good cholesterol) and lowering low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels (bad cholesterol), improving blood flow, and increasing your heart's working capacity. Optimizing each of these factors can provide additional benefits of decreasing the risk for Peripheral Vascular Disease. High Blood Pressure   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Regular physical activity can reduce blood pressure in those with high blood pressure levels. Physical activity reduces body fat, which is associated with high blood pressure. Noninsulin-Dependent Diabetes   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By reducing body fat, physical activity can help to prevent and control this type of diabetes. Obesity   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Physical activity helps to reduce body fat by building or preserving muscle mass and improving the body's ability to use calories. When physical activity is combined with proper nutrition, it can help control weight and prevent obesity, a major risk factor for many diseases. Back Pain   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By increasing muscle strength and endurance and improving flexibility and posture, regular exercise helps to prevent back pain. Osteoporosis   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Regular weight-bearing exercise promotes bone formation and may prevent many forms of bone loss associated with aging.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Disability   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Running and aerobic exercise have been shown to postpone the development of disability in older adults. Stress and anxiety management   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Exercise may serve as an effective tranquilizer. Studies in adults indicate that 30 min of aerobic exercise reduces muscle tension by as much as does a dose of 400 mg o... ...low off steam’).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ the stimulus-seeking theory (the excitement and thrills resulting from physical activity satisfy the increased need for stimulation).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ the boredom theory (sport provides an alternative to occupy a time void, and by participating in physical activities, the child is too tired and too occupied to have energy left for delinquent behaviour). Character development   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Athletic competition does not appear to promote character development; instead, there are some studies that suggest that individuals with athletic experience have poorer attitudes toward fair play. Socially desirable behaviours such as friendliness, generosity and cooperation are inconsistent with physical activities that emphasize winning. However, physical activity may have the potential for personal growth in qualities including persistence, deeper self-reliance, commitment and motivation, and may increase resourcefulness. This is probably truer for noncompetitive physical activities than team competition. http://www.pulsus.com/Paeds/07_05/niem_ed.htm http://diabetes.about.com/cs/exercise/l/blNIHweightexer.htm